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Contents

Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgments

Section 1: North and South America Culture

Chapter 1 Halibut aquaculture in North America

Nick Brown

1.1 Life history and biology

1.2 Broodstock

1.3 Biosecurity

1.4 Photothermal conditioning

1.5 Monitoring gonad development

1.6 Larval culture

1.7 Potential for stock enhancement

1.8 Growout

1.9 Production economics

Chapter 2 Culture of Chilean flounder

Alfonso Silva

2.1 Life history and biology

2.2 Broodstock husbandry

2.3 Larval culture

2.4 Weaning and nursery culture and grow out

2.5 Growout

2.6 Needs for future research

Chapter 3 California halibut*

Douglas E. Conklin and Raul Piedrahita

3.1 Broodstock culture

3.2 Spawning

3.3 Larval rearing

3.4 Juvenile culture

3.5 Density

3.6 Commercial trials

Chapter 4 Culture of summer flounder

David Bengtson and George Nardi

4.1 Life history and biology

4.2 Broodstock husbandry

4.3 Larval culture

4.4 Nursery culture and growout

4.5 Summary

Chapter 5 Culture of southern flounder

Harry Daniels, Wade O. Watanabe, Ryan Murashige, Thomas Losordo, and Christopher Dumas

5.1 Life history and biology

5.2 Broodstock husbandry

5.3 Larviculture

5.4 Growout

5.5 Diseases

5.6 Marketing

5.7 Hatchery economics

5.8 Production economics

5.9 Summary: industry constraints and future expectations

5.10 Conclusions

Chapter 6 Culture of winter flounder

Elizabeth A. Fairchild

6.1 Life history and biology

6.2 Broodstock husbandry

6.3 Larval culture

6.4 Nursery culture and growout

6.5 Growout

6.6 Summary

Section 2: Europe Culture

Chapter 7 Turbot culture

Jeannine Person-Le Ruyet

7.1 Life history and biology

7.2 Broodstock husbandry

7.3 Hatchery culture

7.4 Nursery culture and transition to growout

7.5 Growout

7.6 Harvesting, processing, and marketing

7.7 Production economics

7.8 Summary: industry constraints and future expectations

Section 3: Asia and Australia Culture

Chapter 8 Culture of Japanese flounder

Tadahisa Seikai, Kotaro Kikuchi, and Yuichiro Fujinami

8.1 Aquaculture production

Chapter 9 Culture of olive flounder: Korean perspective

Sungchul C. Bai and Seunghyung Lee

9.1 Current status of olive flounder in Korea

9.2 Basic biology and ecology

9.3 Nutrition and feeding

9.4 Future issues and needs for development

Chapter 10 Culture of greenback flounder

Piers R. Hart

10.1 Life history and biology

10.2 Broodstock husbandry

10.3 System design and requirements

10.4 Photothermal conditioning

10.5 Monitoring gonad development

10.6 Diet and nutrition

10.7 Controlled spawning

10.8 Collection of eggs and egg incubation

10.9 Larval culture

10.10 Hatchery protocols

10.11 Water quality

10.12 Food and feeding

10.13 Formulated feeds

10.14 Hatchery economics

10.15 Genetics for culture versus enhancement

10.16 Nursery culture and growout

10.17 Environmental conditions

10.18 Diet and nutrition

10.19 Health issues

10.20 Stocking and splitting

10.21 Marketing

10.22 Production economics

10.23 Summary: industry constraints and future expectations

Chapter 11 Culture of turbot: Chinese perspective

Ji-Lin Lei and Xin-Fu Liu

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Broodstock husbandry

11.3 Larval culture

11.4 Nursery culture and growout

11.5 Growout

11.6 Summary: industry constraints and future expectations

Section 4: North and South America Stock Enhancement

Chapter 12 Stock enhancement of southern and summer flounder

John M. Miller, Robert Vega, and Yoh Yamashitar

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Previous work

12.3 Rationale for stocking

12.4 Likelihood stocking would increase production

12.5 Management changes to support stocking efforts

12.6 Potential risks and rewards of stocking

12.7 Issues that need resolution before stocking is implemented

12.8 Hatchery and stocking protocols to increase success

12.9 Socioeconomic aspects

12.10 Who should pay?

12.11 Conclusion

Section 5: Europe Stock Enhancement3

Chapter 13 Stock enhancement Europe: turbot Psetta maxima

Josianne G. Støttrup and C. R. Sparrevohn

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Turbot production

13.3 Turbot stocking

13.4 Rationale for turbot stocking

13.5 Origin of fish for stocking

13.6 Marking and tagging techniques

13.7 Release procedures

13.8 Choice of release site/habitat

13.9 Release strategy and magnitude of release

13.10 Postrelease mortality and conditioning

13.11 Cost-benefit of the releases

13.12 Perspectives

13.13 Acknowledgments

Section 6: Asia Stock Enhancement

Chapter 14 Stock enhancement of Japanese flounder in Japan

Yoh Yamashita and Masato Aritaki

14.1 Background

14.2 Summary of catch and stock enhancement data for Japanese flounder

14.3 Release strategy

14.4 Evaluation of the effectiveness of the stock enhancement

14.5 Future perspectives

14.6 Acknowledgments

Section 7: Flatfish Worldwide

Chapter 15 Disease diagnosis and treatment

Edward J. Noga, Stephen A. Smith, and Oddvar H. Ottesen

15.1 General signs of disease

15.2 Viral diseases

15.3 Bacterial diseases

15.4 Parasitic and other eukaryotic diseases

15.5 Noninfectious diseases

15.6 Health management in flatfish aquaculture

Chapter 16 Flatfish as model research animals: metamorphosis and sex determination

Russell J. Borski, John Adam Luckenbach, and John Godwin

16.1 Metamorphosis

16.2 Sex determination

16.3 Conclusion and future research directions

16.4 Acknowledgments

Chapter 17 Behavioral quality of flatfish for stock enhancement

John Selden Burke and Reji Masuda

17.1 Behavioral quality and the hatchery environment

17.2 Tactics for reducing the impact of behavioral deficits

17.3 Life history considerations

17.4 Environmental enrichment

17.5 Nutritional factors and foraging

17.6 Predator avoidance

17.7 Behavioral indicators

17.8 Conclusion and recommendations

Chapter 18 Summary and conclusions

Wade O. Watanabe and Harry Daniels

18.1 Life history and biology

18.2 Broodstock husbandry

18.3 Monitoring gonad development

18.4 Larval culture

18.5 Water quality

18.6 Nursery culture

18.7 Growout

18.8 Harvesting, processing, and marketing

18.10 Summary: industry constraints and future expectations

Index

Edition first published 2010

Chapter 17 remains with the U.S. Government.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Practical flatfish culture and stock enhancement/editors, H.V.

Daniels, W.O. Watanabe.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-8138-0942-7 (hardback: alk. paper)

1. Flatfishes I. Daniels, H. V. (Harry V.) II. Watanabe, Wade O. SH167.F55P73 2010

639.3^′769-dc22

2009050270

Contributors

Masato Aritaki

National Center for Stock Enhancement

Fisheries Research Agency

Sakiyama Miyako, Iwate Japan

Sungchul C. Bai

Department of Aquaculture/Feeds and

Foods Nutrition Research Center (FFNRC)

Pukyong Nat’l University

Busan, Republic of Korea

David Bengtson

Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science

University of Rhode Island

Kingston, RI

Russell J. Borski

Department of Biology

North Carolina State University Raleigh, NC

Nick Brown

Center for Cooperative Aquaculture Research

University of Maine

Franklin, ME

John Selden Burke

Center for Coastal Fisheries and Habitat Research

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Beafort, NC

Douglas Conklin

Department of Animal Science UC Davis

Davis, CA

Harry Daniels

Department of Biology

North Carolina State University Raleigh, NC

Christopher Dumas

University of North Carolina Wilmington

Wilmington, NC

Elizabeth A. Fairchild

Department of Zoology

University of New Hampshire

Durham, NH

Yuichiro Fujinami

Miyako Station

National Center for Stock Enhancement

Fisheries Research Agency

Sakiyama, Miyako, Iwate

Japan

John Godwin

Department of Biology

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, NC

Piers R. Hart

Lewes, East Sussex, BN

Kotaro Kikuchi

Biological Environment Sector

Environmental Science Research Laboratory

CRIEPI

Tokyo, Japan

Seunghyung Lee

Department of Fisheries Biology

Pukyong National University

Daeyeon dong, Namgu

Busan, Republic of Korea

Ji-Lin Lei

Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute

Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences

Qingdao, Shandong

People’s Republic of China

Xin-Fu Liu

Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute

Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences

Qingdao, Shandong

People’s Republic of China

Thomas Losordo

Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, NC

John Adam Luckenbach

School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences

University of Washington

Seattle, Washington, DC

Reji Masuda

Maizuru Fisheries Research Station

Kyoto University

Nagahama, Maizuru

Kyoto, Japan

John M. Miller

Department of Biology

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, NC

Ryan Murashige

Castle International

Honolulu, HI

George Nardi

GreatBay Aquaculture

Portsmouth, NH

Edward J. Noga

Department of Clinical Sciences

College of Veterinary Medicine

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, NC

Oddvar H. Ottesen

Bodø University College

Department of Fisheries and Natural Sciences

Bodø, Norway

Raul Piedrahita

Department of Agricultural Engineering

UC Davis

Davis, CA

Jeanine Person-Le Ruyet

Unité Mixte Nutrition, Aquaculture, Génomique

Laboratoire Adaptation Reproduction Nutrition des Poissons,

IFREMER Centre de Brest

Plouzané, France

Tadahisa Seikai

Fukui Prefectural University

Obama City

Obama, Fukui, Japan

Alfonso Silva

Departamento de Acuacultura

Universidad Catolica del Norte

Casilla, Coquimbo, Chile

Stephen A. Smith

Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology

Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine

Virginia Tech University

Blacksburg, VA

C. R. Sparrevohn

Section for Coastal Ecology

National Institute of Aquatic Resources

Technical University of Denmark,

Charlottenlund Castle

Charlottenlund

Denmark

Josianne G. Støttrup

Technical University of Denmark

National Institute of Aquatic Research (DTU Aqua)

Charlottenlund Castle

Charlottenlund, Denmark

Robert Vega

Texas Parks and Wildlife Marine Development Center

Corpus Christi, TX

Wade O. Watanabe

Center for Marine Science

University of North Carolina Wilmington

Wilmington, NC

Yoh Yamashita

Maizuru Fisheries Research Station

Kyoto University

Nagahama, Maizuru

Kyoto, Japan

Preface

The United States Aquaculture Society

The United States Aquaculture Society (USAS) is a chapter of the World Aquaculture Society (WAS), a worldwide professional organization dedicated to the exchange of information and the networking among the diverse aquaculture constituencies interested in the advancement of the aquaculture industry, through the provision of services and professional development opportunities. The mission of the USAS is to provide a national forum for the exchange of timely information among aquaculture researchers, students, and industry members in the United States. To accomplish this mission, the USAS will sponsor and convene workshops and meetings, foster educational opportunities, and publish aquaculture-related materials important to U.S. aquaculture development.

The USAS membership is diverse, representing researchers, students, commercial producers, academics, consultants, commercial support personnel, extension specialists, and other undesignated members. Member benefits are substantial and include issue awareness, a unified voice for addressing issues of importance to the United States Aquaculture Community, networking opportunities, business contacts, employment services, discounts on publications, and a semiannual newsletter reported by regional editors and USAS members. Membership also provides opportunities for leadership and professional development through service as an elected officer or board member, chair of a working committee, or organizer of a special session or workshop, special project, program, or publication as well as recognition through three categories of career achievement (early career, distinguished service, and lifetime achievement). Student members are eligible for student awards and special accommodations at national meetings of the USAS, and have opportunities for leadership through committees, participation in Board activities, sponsorship of social mixers, networking at annual meetings and organization of special projects.

At its annual business meeting in New Orleans in January 2005, the USAS under the leadership of President LaDon Swann, voted to increase both the diversity and quality of publications for its members through a formal solicitation process for sponsored publications, including books, conference proceedings, fact sheets, pictorials, hatchery or production manuals, data compilations, and other materials that are important to United States Aquaculture development and that will be of benefit to USAS members. As aquaculture becomes increasingly global in scope, it is important for USAS members to gain an international perspective on the reasons for successful aquaculture developments at home and abroad. Flatfish (also known as flounder) are a group of marine or brackishwater finfish that support important recreational and commercial fisheries throughout the world and they are among the few finfish species that are the subject of significant marine stock enhancement efforts in Europe, Asia, and North America. In this book, Practical Flatfish Culture and Stock Enhancement, international experts provide comprehensive (i.e., from egg to market) reviews of the different species that are being researched or already being produced for commercial cultivation and for hatchery-based fisheries enhancement.

Through collaboration with Wiley-Blackwell on books projects such as these, the USAS Board aims to serve its membership by providing timely information through publications of the highest quality at a reasonable cost. The USAS thanks the editors Harry Daniels and Wade Watanabe for sharing royalties which will help provide the benefits and services to members and to the aquaculture community and Justin Jeffryes and Shelby Allen (Wiley-Blackwell) for their cooperation. The USAS Publications Committee members include Drs. Wade O. Watanabe (Chair), Jeff Hinshaw, Jimmy Avery, and Christopher Kohler, with Rebecca Lochmann and Douglas Drennan as immediate past and current Presidents, respectively.

Wade O. Watanabe, Ph.D.

Director and Publications Chair, United States Aquaculture Society

Research Professor and Aquaculture Program Coordinator

Mariculture Program Leader, Marine Biotechnology in North Carolina

University of North Carolina Wilmington, Center for Marine Science

Wilmington, North Carolina, USA

Preface

Vision for the project

This book is aimed to provide a valuable reference for members of the aquaculture and fisheries communities. The goal is to provide a practical perspective on culture methods for the aquaculturist while simultaneously providing key biological information, from the culturist’s perspective, that is necessary for the fisheries manager. With the development of technologies for mass propagation of juveniles flounder, both stock enhancement and production aquaculture may allow a sustainable supply of flatfish for the foreseeable future. It is for this reason that we are including several chapters on flatfish stock enhancement. We feel that this approach will provide the first comprehensive treatment of these two issues as they relate to each other and will be useful to biologists for making proactive management decisions.

The biology of flatfish was comprehensively covered in a previous book by Robin N. Gibson, entitled Flatfishes: Biology and Exploitation (2005), which primarily covered flatfish biology, ecology, behavior, and fisheries, and included a chapter on flounder Aquaculture and Stock Enhancement (B. R. Howell and Y. Yamashita). However, there have been no comprehensive reviews of the practical aspects of flatfish culture and stock enhancement, with a detailed review of the different species that are being researched or already being produced for commercial cultivation or for stock enhancement. Furthermore, there are no book publications on the subject of flatfish that address the culture and stock enhancement issues simultaneously. We anticipate that this type of discussion will be particularly valuable to the practicing aquaculturist and should also provide a unique perspective to the student interested in fisheries management as well as aquaculture.

The primary audience for this book is intended to be researchers and state and federal fisheries biologists who use flatfish as their research model or are struggling with a lack of information on flatfish biology and culture practices and how they may affect enhancement decisions. This latter group is seen as a tremendously underserved group. Recent international, federal, and state-mandated quotas on flatfish harvest have increased the interest in stock enhancement of hatchery-cultured flatfish to supplement declining stocks. We see this book as a timely contribution to the debate about these issues. The secondary audience for this volume would be students who are interested in aquaculture and/or fisheries management. In this area would be the advanced undergraduate and graduate students. This book may serve as a particularly valuable reference for this latter group.

Scope and contents of the book

In this book, a summary of the “state-of-the-art” for the culture of each species is provided, including life history and biology, broodstock husbandry, larval culture, nursery culture and growout, harvesting and processing, marketing, and hatchery and production economics, and stock enhancement. For chapters on species, the book was structured to facilitate interspecific comparisons and contrasts, with the objective of summarizing available technology while accelerating technology development for the culture of all these species. Since each species has reached a different level of research and commercial development, the available information for each species is not necessarily uniform in coverage.

In addition to species coverage, there is detailed coverage of the diseases that have afflicted different species of flatfish and those that are likely to emerge as industrial flatfish culture develops. This includes general principles of fish disease diagnosis from the standpoint of what the culturist must do to enhance the ability of the fish health specialist or veterinarian to be able to provide a diagnosis of a disease problem. Special emphasis is placed on the treatment of fish prior to release into the natural environment and the types of screening processes or protocols that are needed to certify disease-free status. The latest information on flatfish stock enhancement, including release technologies for efficient stocking, particularly as it pertains to flatfish species, is provided and future perspectives for the management of the flounder stocks are discussed.

Because of the availability of wild broodstock and their ease of larval culture, relevance to research on marine ecotoxicology and their asymmetric metamorphic development, flatfish are increasingly being used as models for basic research on mechanisms of sex determination, cold tolerance, growth, and osmoregulation. A chapter on flatfish as research animals provides a brief overview of the biology of metamorphosis and sex determination and its regulation in flatfishes, including both environmental and genetic sex determining mechanisms, the primary hormones involved in regulating metamorphosis, and how these flatfish provide valuable research models to better understand how these developmental stages are controlled in vertebrates.

The final chapter crosscuts across species to uncover the similarities and differences in knowledge and technologies for flatfish at each phase of the culture process and to emphasize those technologies that are gaining commercial importance and the important areas for future research. We hope that flatfish culturists will be able to use the information in this book to accelerate progress in technology development for both culture and stock enhancement of this economically valuable and important group of fish species.

Harry V. Daniels and Wade O. Watanabe