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Author:

Albert Jacquemart

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ISBN: 978-1-78310-787-2

Albert Jacquemart

Decorative Art

Contents

Introduction

Furniture

Carved wooden furniture

Furniture inlaid with piqué

Ebony furniture inlaid with ivory or carved

Furniture inlaid with stones

Furniture styled with brass carving

Furniture overlaid with tortoise shell and metal

Furniture in marquetry of various woods

Furniture panelled with plaques of porcelain

Furniture lacquered in varnish or paint

Furniture in gilt or painted wood

Ornamental Art

Ornamental bronzes

Clocks and timepieces

Wrought iron, European arms, embossed brass, damascened metals

Arms

Repoussé coppers

Damascened metals

The goldsmith’s art

Jewellery

Tortoise shell, piqué, and posé d’or

Boxes and snuff boxes

Enamels

Cloisonné and champlevé enamels

Painted enamels

Venetian enamels

Glass

Objects of Art Derived from Statuary

Marble, stone, alabaster

Bronzes

Plaquettes and medallions

Ivories

Wood

Drapes and Fabrics

Tapestry

Arras

Lille

Brussels

The Gobelins

Beauvais

Embroidery and lace

Knitted fabric

Leather and wallpaper

Index

Notes

Diptych, 8th century. Elephant ivory, 34.3 x 10.7 cm.

From the Beauvais Cathedral treasure. Musée de Cluny, Paris.

Introduction

In discussing furniture, we must begin by defining the value of the word according to the various periods to which it is applied. In its literal and general meaning, furniture represents everything that is moveable, transportable, and easy to put away.

In the early ages of our history, man was, to a certain extent, nomadic. If the necessity of defence caused castles and fortresses to be erected, fitted for repelling a hostile incursion, and for protecting the humble dwellings which gathered around them, lords and vassals, rich and poor, providing against a victorious invasion, or the necessity of going to fight in distant parts for their country’s cause, held themselves prepared to pack up, in chests kept ready for the purpose, all of their possessions. These chests are, therefore, the first and most ancient furniture.

By degrees, as public security increased, and society, growing more condensed, found support in its legal organisation, ease began to develop. Along with this came luxury, the innate want of intelligent races who require the satisfaction of the eye in proportion to the enlightenment of the mind. Strictly speaking, therefore, it was not until after the strife of the Middle Ages that furniture, such as we understand it today, could have existed. That is, an assemblage of objects placed in the principal divisions of the habitation to satisfy various requirements, and at the same time present an agreeable, elegant and even splendid appearance.

It is difficult, therefore, in the present day to compose a truly historical set of furniture, even by seeking its elements in the periods closest to us. Customs, habits, needs, and wants have changed; ancient pieces have been destroyed in mass quantities, and even when they are discovered, these pieces offer an incomplete match in regard to comfort as a modern invention but an absolute necessity in every luxurious dwelling.

Some people have, it is true, conceived the idea of transforming old furniture so as to adapt it to present exigencies; this is a barbaric concept, against which all sensible men will protest. Let us respect the waifs of the past, and beware of touching them with sacrilegious hands. It is only thus that valuable relics can retain their prestige, and add lustre to the galleries of their fortunate possessors.

Nor do we accept the compromise adopted by some, which consists in completing a furniture characteristic of a particular period with modern imitations. Few people would be deceived by it, and a false specimen introduced into a collection confuses visitors, and makes them doubt the authenticity of the entire collection.

Let us now glance rapidly at the periods whence a connoisseur may seek, with some chance of success, various parts of a choice set of furniture.

In the 14th century, Charles V and Jeanne of Bourbon had collected at the Louvre and in their chateaux countless marvels, of which a detailed inventory has preserved us a description of the contents. It was absolutely necessary that the flats should be suitable in order to contain these treasures. Indeed, contemporary writings prove the admiration impressed upon and shared with their guests by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV and his son Wenceslas, King of the Romans, when they came to Paris in 1378. They even felt great pleasure, writers say, in receiving magnificent jewels from the king, “such as they are known to do in Paris.”

The 15th century offered nothing to add to this luxury. At most one could ask for items with which to furnish an oratory or study, that is to say chairs, benches, desks, kneelers, bookshelves and cabinets, etc.

In the 16th century, furniture that may be applied to our current uses becomes more common. The necessity of easy transport still exists and everything must be made with the option of disassembly; beds have their columns and other parts jointed, tables are on trestles or made to fold down on their axis, cabinets are numerous and varied in materials and dimensions so that being filled with valuables they may be easily stored in the chests or trunks, chairs have hooks, fastenings or can be folded. In a word, the camp furniture is ready to be packed together with the ornamental cushions, carpets and moveable hangings that they attached wherever the dwelling-place of the moment was located.

At the end of the century, furniture becomes still more abundant, and already the more cumbrous pieces cease to travel; at the moment of leaving the chateau such pieces are consigned to the garrets or the wardrobe rooms, where they remain until the day of return. At this period, a taste for the sights becomes more common; distant voyages procure objects from India, caskets painted in the Turkish fashion, oriental carpets and porcelain from China, which was easily obtainable in Cairo. It is easy to realise in the present day what kind of riches a palace of 1589 might contain; l’Inventaire des meubles de Catherine de Médici, published by Edmond Bonnaffé, is, in this respect, as descriptive as possible.

Castle of Écouen, aerial view.

Notre Dame de Paris, sculpture room. Musée de Cluny, Paris.

To return to less exceptional things, let us go back to the Musée de Cluny, where the decorations from the Château de Villepreux, belonging to Pierre de Gondy, bishop of Paris, will show the luxury of the 16th century in a simpler form, and allow us to observe a bed more appropriat for contemporary use. We must also point out this important peculiarity, that the inventory of Catherine de Médici shows a very extensive collection of ebony cabinets inlaid with ivory which are of German fashion, that is, marquetry of various woods. However, it does not have pieces of wood-carved furniture which must have still been in use, as may be proved by those bearing the monogram of Henry II and the double crescent to be found in museums and among collections. It is an indication of the possible mingling of these three kinds of furniture making one whole set.

We still keep to the genuine 16th century so long as we do not see the rather cumbrous pieces of the time of Henry IV which lead directly to the style of Louis XIII. The furniture of this period of transition, which is occasionally sombre from the abuse of ebony, has already a degree of pomp announcing the century of Louis XIV. When we say furniture, we do not mean pieces of outward show, more luxurious than useful; this is one of the characteristics of the period of the great king. A more complete picture more clearly proving the absence of useful furniture could not be desired. In order to find such, in an intimate and charming form, we must pass to the reign of Louis XV, the king who deserted the state apartments to take refuge in places with secret doors and back staircases.

But here, if the “grandiose” style has disappeared, that of exaggerated caprice takes its place. Everything is distorted, broken and complicated, exuberant, elaborately ornamented details appear in everything; simplicity is unknown. It is the period above all others which is the most difficult for the man of taste. Ugliness jostled with what is mere extravagance of style or elegance, while, by a judicious choice, the exaggerations which are the evident work of artists of inferior merit who can only be impressed with ideas from their extreme points of view discarded. Here begins the remarkable era of metal carving with bronze being applied to cabinet work, torches, chandeliers and lamps, which are often of admirable workmanship and talented design.

We will say little about the period of Louis XVI; public taste leads most in that direction, and it is very well known. The charming simplicity of its style is an intelligent protest against the rocaille and loose furniture preceding it. We find in it all that our present desires demand, united to even the most delicate designs. The only dangers that connoisseurs may encounter are scarcity, high prices and the fear of forgeries.

It may be seen by this rapid sketch what difficulties exist in the reformation of a historical set of furniture and what care and tact must be used in order to avoid anachronisms. From the earliest ages, the love for rare and interesting things introduced an eclectic variety into private homes, which well characterised the taste of the collector. The Romans liked to surround themselves with the valuable objects afforded to them through conquest or distant commerce; the Middle Ages had the same tendency, and the search for exotic treasures continued and increased over time. In France, the crusades were a first revelation; the wars in Italy completed the work and gave rise to the Renaissance.

Alessandro Vittoria, Jupiter Holding his Thunderbolt,

c. 1580. Bronze, 72 cm. Castle of Écouen,

Musée national de la Renaissance.

Oriental works, rich carpets and antiques therefore have a right to take their place amongst ancient furniture, in order to heighten its charm; this is evident from the preceding descriptions. In the 17th century, India and China mingle their products with those of France’s national industry. Under Louis XV, porcelain begins to intrude everywhere; it is time for its development in French manufactories, which is made possible due to the discovery in Saxony of a hard paste similar to that of the Chinese. Now, not only the table is composed of porcelain, but chimney pieces, furniture details, console tables, vases, and candlesticks of novel invention, which does not, however, cause oriental works to be proscribed. These novelties lose part of their popularity under Louis XVI and French porcelain tends to take their place, with its delicate paintings, and soft, varied colouring. Sèvres porcelain harmonised wonderfully with the rosewood veneering, and chasings rivalling jewellery, with matte bronzes and the fine goldsmith works emulating antique styles. Art, then, or to say more, science, consists of knowing how to choose these different elements, and combine them so that taste may be satisfied without injury to historical accuracy; the impression is then complete, and the visitor can imagine himself living during some other period.

There is no doubt that attaining this is difficult. Not only great sacrifices have been made, but a combination of fortunate circumstances has enabled some connoisseurs to complete a salon, a bed-chamber, a boudoir, with things not only antique, but of a particular epoch. Thus everyone can remember the Louis XIV salon of Leopold Double, as well as Rosalie Duthé’s charming boudoir, in which the ceiling and painted panelling are accompanied by all the accessories of the same origin, patiently collected, purchased under the excitement of public auctions, or snatched from the hammer of demolitions. The sumptuous apartments of the Rothschild family are also much admired where every moment one expects to see the sympathetic forms of Marie Antoinette and Madame de Lamballe, who are most often recalled to one’s recollection.

These difficulties need not discourage those who desire to borrow objects from the past to surround themselves with. If, from the severity of its demands, history should escape them, they can make use of a compromise, which taste allows, by composing a purely eclectic set of furniture.

Let us here explain: among the connoisseurs of less contemporary times, there were some who, like their ancestors of the Renaissance and the following centuries, openly assumed the title of collector and their possession of an antique cabinet was well-known. In those days, as we know, the cabinet, which was an appendage and ornament to a habitation, contained, besides jewellery and other articles of personal ornament, silver coins, bronzes, weapons, marbles, medals, crystals, stones, pictures, in short, all that constitutes a collection. In the present day, however, many who collect relics of the past refuse, from modesty, to avow that they possess a cabinet. Are they less rich in rarities than the old connoisseurs? Not so; but what they acquire is not grouped in a single gallery, in the cabinet; it is scattered about everywhere, surrounding them wherever they may be, and their enjoyment of it is increased because at every moment they have within reach one of the thousand objects they love. This, therefore, is precisely what constitutes a set of eclectic furniture.

Can it be concluded from this that it is sufficient to possess valuable things and bring them together by chance in order to come within the rules of eclecticism? A rich interior should not resemble the well-furnished shop of a dealer, as ill-assorted objects are always disagreeable. Works bearing the special date of their style possess obvious harmony; the credenzas[1] of the Middle Ages and the sideboards with their delicate Gothic tracery would be out of place, if placed side by side with tormented brass chests, glaring with twisted and intrusive brasswork. Solid French earthenware would look coarse placed in contact with the furniture of Louis XVI and Sèvres porcelain would appear insipid on a crystal cabinet of the 17th century.

It will be asked, then, where is a rule to be found? We repeat, in taste. Let us declare to the credit of our artists that it is principally to them that we may go for advice on the scientific assemblage of these various objects. The choice of form, the true keynote in the assortment of colours, the supreme elegance of the whole put together as one all denote the experience gained in their daily studies and historical knowledge, bringing all the power of this particular talent to light.

Examples of these particular talents include highlighting a tapestry from Arras or Flanders or displaying a lacquered cabinet of Indian piqué or of ebony inlaid with ivory in their best light. Including additionally, finding a suitable place for arms, porcelain and bronzes, exhibiting a terracotta work by Clodion, an ivory piece by François Duquesnoy, or the goldsmith work of Baslin. Furthermore, suspending in their right places a Persian embroidery, an Indian brocade, and a Japanese rouleau could never be the work of a newcomer. The anachronisms between two ill-assorted pieces may be as offensive to the eye as the mismatched parts of a complete set of furniture. The finest pieces of armour will assume the look of old iron depending on the background which serves to set them off. The true secret lies in finding transition pieces.

Jean-François Oeben and Jean-Henri Riesener, Roll-top secrétaire
for Louis XV’s inner study in Versailles, 1760-1769. Bronze,

marquetry of a variety of fine woods, Sèvres porcelain,

147.3 x 192.5 x 105 cm. Palace of Versailles.

Jean-François Dubut, Small Louis XV writing desk

(from a pair) violin-shaped, close view of the feet in

gilt bronze. Archives of the Didier Aaron Gallery, Paris.

Furniture

The furniture of the Middle Ages must be divided into two different categories. The most important examples are evidently those for religious use. Where else should the greatest splendour of art be exhibited than in the house of the Almighty? Were not the workmen established in monastic houses specially bound to devote all of their energies to the adornment of the Church? History proves it is amongst the choir stalls where masterpieces of art and the ornaments of the sacristy must be sought.

However, we will dwell but little on this branch of furniture, which diverges slightly from the specialty of this study. It will be sufficient for us to point out the pieces in our museums which exhibit its characteristics. First, we will mention the sumptuous sacristy sideboard, preserved in the Musée de Cluny, taken from the church of Saint-Pol-de-Léon. Its triple-staged construction, the lace-like delicacy of its pierced canopies, its panels which hold the arms of France, Brittany, and those of a donor stand in relief; its beautiful locks of wrought iron, decorated with emblazoned woodwork bearing the same arms as the panels, make it one of the most interesting specimens of the cabinet work of the 15th century. A no less important piece of the same period is the carved woodwork forming the railing of one of the chapels of the church in Augerolles (Puy-de-Dôme). We should also mention a large refectory bench with the arms of France, probably taken from some royal abbey, and here we will stop on the threshold of the Renaissance when religious and secular furniture become assimilated.

To discover the remnants of the latter, we must search manorial homes. The first craftsmen employed in the construction of various containers of all sizes destined to contain and transport an individual’s property were simply carpenters. It is interesting to review the various terms which have served to qualify this primitive style of furniture. The bahut was originally a covering made of leather or wicker and used to contain and protect a large box, in which other smaller boxes were lodged. Through the course of time, the name passed from the covering to the box itself, and served to designate even armoires and jewel boxes. The coffer is subject to a still greater number of variations; it is often confused with the bahut, or chest, and becomes synonymous with trunk, casket, and moving, particularly when considering its capaciousness. A very large coffer was used as a receptacle for other, smaller boxes when on a journey, and at home its interior served the same purpose as today’s armoires. It was also used as a seat, and even as a table. As for the smaller chests or caskets, they varied as much in shape as in material, and those made of gold, silver, precious woods, chased or enamelled copper played an important part in the elegant life and the splendour of the Middle Ages. The custom of locking not only valuable jewels, but also cash in coffers caused the name to be adopted to express the finances of king or state.

Sideboard, late 16th century. Golden walnut wood.

The hutch is, again, another type of coffer or bahut, sometimes called arche, huceau, hucheau, huchel, and buffet. The hucheau was not as large as the huche, and nothing enables us to distinguish whether the other varieties of the name indicated a difference of form or use.

To return to our primitive workmen, the carpenters naturally held art as a secondary rank. Solidity, it may well be imagined, was the first qualification for these chests, which were destined for frequent journeys on the back of powerful sumpter horses, to circulate through the winding staircases and narrow passages of the feudal towers, and bear the weight of those who used them as a seat. Accordingly, one of the most ancient decorations consisted in the application of complicated iron mounts, which added strength to skilfully fashioned woods. The Musée Carnavalet of Paris possesses one of these coffers, iron-bound in the same way and perhaps by the same hand as the celebrated entrance doors of Notre Dame de Paris, one of the masterpieces of the 18th century.

From the close of the 11th century, however, the necessity of embellishing with ornaments in relief became understood and such objects were constantly placed within sight. This was required in order to create a greater harmony with the splendour of hangings and dress. They even went farther by covering broad surfaces with gold backgrounds, embellished by paintings. In the following century elegance of form came into consideration. It ushered rounded wood into the construction of furniture, and then in the 13th century the grounds were ornamented with sculptures of low relief.

During these two centuries, however, furniture remained within very narrow limits. As we have just observed, hutches and bahuts constituted its basis having clothing, linen, valuables, and money as their main consignment. The bed came next, then the chair of the master of the house, high-backed benches, some stools, the cabinet, which was moveable and permitted circulation around it for the convenience of service, and the sideboard in the form of a shelf, on which tablecloths were spread at meals, and the most valuable plates were laid out on the narrow shelves which rose in steps at the back. The beds were surrounded with curtains suspended by a system of cords, and the larger pieces of furniture were ornamented with portable cushions and Saracenic carpets.

Octagonal table, c. 1480-1500.

Oak wood, 75 x 90.5 x 79 cm.

Musée de Cluny, Paris.

The 13th century, while bringing more advanced developmental tools, also caused a separation amongst the workmen specially employed in the construction of furniture, who thenceforth were divided into two different classes: carpenters and joiners. The first applied themselves solely to massive works; the others, advancing further and further into the domain of art, became assimilated with the ymaigiers or sculptors themselves. They traced flowery patterns with elegant scrolls of foliage on the pliant wood to form the framework of personages and scenes from sacred or profane history, or else representing in Gothic or square compartments subjects of fables or legendary songs.

In the 14th century and early years of the 15th, elegant luxury was primarily displayed in rich fabrics and tapestries made to cover furniture, seats and benches. The flowing draperies of the beds partook of this taste, which originated with the Crusades, and was initially inspired by the sight of the magnificent fabrics of the East. Sculpture, nevertheless, continued its progress, and even Italian woodwork began to show Oriental derivation.

In the 15th century, the appearance of a bedroom is thus represented. The curtains of the bedstead are tied back in order to display its costly coverlets; on one side sits the master’s chair, then the devotional picture or small domestic altar attached to the wall. The armoire and other small pieces of furniture were arranged around the room, and often in front of an immense fireplace was a high-backed seat where one came to seek warmth. This arrangement, which can be seen in miniatures and tapestries taken from various sources, proves the uniformity of lifestyles in the different classes of society. Here we find figures whose dress and elegance denote their high position; here, again, are plain citizens surrounded by their serving men and a number of objects which allow us to judge that the room is in one moment the bedroom, the reception room in another, and also the family refectory. If we enter the study of a statesman or writer, we find the monumental high-backed chair, a revolving desk with a turning wheel intended to keep a number of books close within reach, lecterns, and various other types of desks for writing.

This age also corresponds with the complete expansion of Gothic architecture and furniture. The furniture is divided into flamboyant Gothic cloisters, crowned by fine needle-shaped sticks and flourishing leaves; their niches contain elegantly quaint figures, and the panels, with their bas-reliefs, rival the perfection of altarpieces and religious triptychs of intricate workmanship. Accordingly, no part of these articles of furniture was covered so that the artist’s ingenious conceptions could be easily viewed, unless a covering was absolutely necessary. Much of this furniture served only for luxurious display, while that which was destined for travelling remained simple in form and was modestly concealed in those parts of the dwelling reserved for private life.

We will not extend this brief sketch any further, for, from the 16th century, both public and private life is pictured in so large a number of monuments, paintings, tapestries, engravings and manuscripts that it would be superfluous to attempt an analysis essentially colourless beside the originals. Now, rather than study furniture as a whole, we will view it broken down into genre so as to show its progress, connections and appreciate its styles in their successive transformations.

“Joinville” sideboard, c. 1524.

Carved wood, 144 cm. Castle of Écouen,

Musée national de la Renaissance.

“Harpys” sideboard, c. 1560-1570.

Carved wood, 147 cm. Castle of Écouen,

Musée national de la Renaissance.

Carved wooden furniture

What we said previously about the uses of primitive furniture renders it needless to insist on the fact that the greater part of it was made of oak. Nothing less than this solid material assembled by robust carpenters could serve for resisting the endless jolting of constant journeys. Understandably, it is unnecessary to dwell long on the subject of the first chests, the majority of which must have disappeared. It is when art begins to manifest itself that interest commences. We have already mentioned the iron-bound coffer of the Musée Carnavalet of Paris. We will also examine, as a characteristic of the end of the 13th century, the curious piece purchased by the Musée de Cluny. It is a bahut of which the sides are ornamented with arches framing figures of men-at-arms in full armour and jugglers. One end exhibits a riding warrior and the other has a tree with diverging branches laden with leaves. The top, slightly rounded, is of squared medallions containing scenes illustrative of both customs and military figures. The ironwork is in a more advanced style of art than the wood; indeed we may set the beginning of the 13th century as the peak of ironwork.

A sort of gap occurs between this period and the 15th century when examples become plentiful, a gap which is filled with works in sculpture and sufficiently manifests the trial and error of art. During this period of transition, the various names by which furniture workers were associated is obvious proof of the indecision existing in the exercise of their trade; few are called carpenters, others are huchiers and coffer makers, finally the title carpenter appears to encompass them all, so to speak, with the new form of art and elegancies. To find cabinet makers, we must pass over another century and enter the full period of the Renaissance.

A similar chest from the same collection is also valuable on more than one account. Of undeniable Italian origin, it is sculpted with ornaments of an elegant Gothic style, which are curiously combined with certain antique and Romanesque reminiscences. The upper frieze is a classic paste[2] arranged in the Gothic style; the four front compartments are composed of elliptic shaped arches, trefoiled interiorly, and supported by small twisted columns. This structure is done with coloured backgrounds which completely frame the subject, each of which represents the same young man presenting himself successively before men in religious costumes. Next the young man’s presence is announced in a castle by men sounding the trumpet while women advance to receive him and introduce him into the interior of the dwelling. The final picture represents a room in which the young man is seated between a matron and a young girl, who has appeared in the two preceding pictures; musicians are sounding trumpets and everything suggests that it is a betrothal ceremony. Thus, the bahut of the 15th century is already the cassone, or marriage coffer, which was presented with the wedding gifts, a custom we will see reproduced throughout the whole of the following century in Italy, and which has been adopted in many other countries, where the splendidly furnished corbeille is still an object of great luxury.

Throne, 16th century.

Carved wood, 174 cm. Castle of Écouen,

Musée national de la Renaissance.

What confirms our opinion that it is a marriage coffer is another painted specimen, belonging to the Cernuschi collection, which forces this title upon itself. On this, appliqué ornaments of antique style are gilded to form three compartments. The middle one contains a painted coat of arms in relief, while the other two represent a young married couple followed by a cavalcade, accompanied by musicians, arriving at the paternal dwelling where they ask for admittance; they are received, and the mother embraces the young wife in a columned vestibule in the presence of the assembled family. The train of attendants has disappeared and all we can see near the doorway is the sumpter mule laden with the baggage of the married pair. This piece is also of the 15th century, as the costumes show, but its style of ornament already gives us foresight into the Renaissance. We will not even attempt to list the Italian artists who were able to devote their chisel to the embellishment of furniture; contemporaries themselves were content to say that the most illustrious among the sculptors did not disdain this branch of art.

It is extremely difficult to specify the dates of 15th century works. The oldest and most numerous are derived from the Gothic style; buttresses, mullions, trefoils and rosettes form their most common ornament. However, this style lasted, more or less, for such a considerable time because it was modified according to various centres and tastes of the changing times; the Gothic of the north of France is not that of the south nor of Italy, rather, the pieces with figures have yielded to still more variable influences. There are some pieces of furniture without analogy to any others which defy all classification; of such is a magnificent cedar chest belonging to Edmond Bonnaffé. Figures wearing the costume of the Court of Burgundy towards the middle of the 15th century represent scenes from Jean de La Fontaine’s fable of love, framed in a rich scroll border with animals running among the foliage. This border is specifically reminiscent of the precious Sicilian-Byzantine fabrics executed at Palermo. Yet, in regards to workmanship, the piece is still mere carpenter’s work, particularly when considering the simplicity of its joining; the lid, plain and without moulding, is bordered by a crossed pattern of small hollow triangles, imitating the setting of Oriental marquetry piqué. The subject itself is deeply engraved rather than sculpted.

“Clairvaux” cupboard, c. 1570.

Carved wood, 246 cm. Castle of Écouen,

Musée national de la Renaissance.

Chest panel, 16th century. Carved wood, 150 cm.

Castle of Écouen, Musée national de la Renaissance.

“Farnèse” wardrobe, c. 1530.

Carved walnut, 230 cm. Castle of Écouen,

Musée national de la Renaissance.

Fan-shaped table, 16th century.

Carved wood, 82 cm. Castle of Écouen,

Musée national de la Renaissance.

The close of the century is mainly a compromise between the past and the ideas of the Renaissance. After Louis XIII we have to look for very specific clues in order to distinguish what is of the 15th or 16th century, French or Italian. On all sides, people sacrificed taste for antiquity; palmette ornaments, branches of coiled flowers, and acanthus with its spiny decorative leaves replaced the western flora. In some old centres, however, they maintained the carvings of flamboyant arches and Gothic canopies; the new designs often led the artist to mix the styles indicative of the transition in ideas and operation.

Already furniture becomes complicated; the credenza, a simple buffet table for tasting dishes, becomes a tall elegant cupboard, often with flaps and a small shelf underneath, it is completed by a back piece and a shelf, thus passing on to the new form of the credenza. What was this to be called? At first the name was given to the room destined to contain the most valuable plate; later, it was applied to a piece of furniture meant to serve the same purpose, and by extension to the other articles which decorated it. The sideboard differed little from the buffet. It also displayed large gold plates, jewellery, and any other flattering items worth showing; the number of shelves was fixed according to the rank and importance of the people with things to display. The credenza was, therefore, the buffet of reception rooms, as the buffet was the sideboard of the banqueting hall.

Where it is necessary for us to pause a moment, is at the word cabinet. The Marquis de Laborde considers this piece of furniture, so prevalent in the 16th and 17th centuries, to be a bahut: raised on four legs, filled with small drawers, all shut together behind a double, sometimes quadruple, folding door, with locks. An architectural disposition was given to this piece, both inside and outside, and thus the cabinet was formed. The learned archaeologist has overlooked the transition which took place in the 16th century between the cabinet, properly so called, and the armoire, a piece of furniture composed of two superimposed bodies and crowned by an elegant pediment. The fact is that the armoire is a cabinet in which the support table has been replaced by a closed base with folding doors and thus utilised.

Apollonio di Giovanni, Marriage chest,
A Tournament on Santa Croce Square in Florence,

mid-15th century. Carved and gilt poplar wood,

oil painting decoration. The National Gallery, London.

Moreover, it would be a hopeless task to describe these different pieces of furniture, which are clear to the connoisseur based on their splendid figures, medallions with busts almost in relief, and arabesques of the finest taste. Such cabinets and credenzas are masterpieces in every respect. A series of the coffers, or cassoni of Italian origin, offer an interesting subject of study in regard to history and art. There is one in the Musée Cernuschi with plain moulding and entirely ornamented with paintings; one would be tempted to attribute it to the beginning of the 15th century if the costumes of the figures did not indicate the period of Louis XII. Those from Baron Gustave de Rothschild’s collection are nearly of the same period, yet their magnificent sculptures in relief, broken at intervals by the coat of arms, griffin supporters, and elegant arabesques which stand out boldly from the gilded piqué background, would seem to make them nearly a century younger. These gilded backgrounds are a relic of the customs of the Middle Ages; a majority of the furniture which our museums possess, which shine with the warm colouring of old polished oak, were once illuminated in their backgrounds as well as in their reliefs. The Musée de Cluny still has a coffer representing the twelve apostles which has retained its ancient paint.

It is to the Renaissance, therefore, that we owe the progress which substituted the simple force of relief for the artificial glow of blue or vermilion. To strengthen this force they began to choose fine wood which was more accessible to the delicacy of touch than oak with its rough fibres. France especially gave the preference to walnut, raising figures borrowed from the School of Fontainebleau on its smooth surface figures. The choice of material and the style of workmanship enable us to determine a certain number of schools. The school of the north of France, faithful to its ancient traditions, retains oak and covers it with scenes in which the figures, though rather short, assume a harsh energy; the abundant embellishments remind us of those of Rouen and other Norman edifices. The schools of Touraine and Lyons, nearer to the sources of the Renaissance, use fine-grained wood and rich arabesques, putting winged sphinxes as support for tables, or for the basements of their small buildings and carve upon them elegant scenes inspired by Jean Goujon and Germain Pilon. As for the Burgundian school, it possesses all the perfections for it stands in the very centre of progress; since Philip the Good, it has known all the splendours of luxury and received all the encouragement that can enhance art.